With the assistance of the Tlaxcalans, and after many bloody battles, the Spaniards eventually defeated the Aztecs in August 1521. This is known as a trade monopoly. Colonialism, which refers to the establishment of political and economic control by one state over another, had an enormous impact on Africa.The colonial experience began in the late 1400s, when Europeans arrived and set up trading posts in Africa. Cases like these occurred regularly, but were not reported, as many slaves were still used to being whipped by their masters. Some brought complaints against their owners in the courts or to the Guardian of Slaves. However, Roelof removed her clothes from the back, tied her to a ladder and continued to beat her with an ox strap. They brought with them cannons, mastiff dogs and sixteen horses. Of the 250 slaves captured, only 170 survived the journey to the Cape. This brought the Dutch into conflict with the powerful Cochoqua chief, Gonnema, who refused to trade with the VOC. Countries with large empires were respected and admired. Many princes signed treaties with the British and agreed to co-operate with the British. They arrived in Calicut in 1498. However, the fact remains that the Dutch authorities were never able to wipe out the community, and the Hangklip maroons continued to live on the margins of colonial society. This meant that no more slaves (from any destination) could be sent to work in the Cape. Unlike the Portuguese, the Dutch did not trade guns as they did not want the Khoikhoi to use the guns against them. Today, the term slavery is used to indicate a wide range of human rights abuses and exploitative labour practices. The city was bombarded with canon fire from the ships of Portuguese captain, Ruy Lourenço Ravasco. The trans-Saharan trade routes between Songhay and the North African traders provided Europe with gold coins used to trade spices, silks and other luxuries from India. It is these missionaries who prepared the ground for later waves of colonial agents such as Cecil John Rhodes in Southern Africa. It became clear to the colonial authorities at the Cape, especially after the British took over political power from the Dutch, that the use of slave labour had severe limitations. During the nineteenth century, individual Western nations called parts of China their sphere or area of influence. The following case studies will tell you more about how this mighty empire was destroyed by the Spanish. The official language of the former Spanish colonies in the Americas is Spanish but there are many people who still speak their indigenous languages. The French also joined trade in India in about 1675. There they founded two republics, the Orange Free State (1854) and the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (ZAR), better known as the Transvaal (1858). Manika may not have been entirely truthful when she testified that she had not seen him in all the years after he had fled. The Portuguese traded guns for slaves captured by the Kongo in wars against rival kingdoms in the interior. In slave societies, the institution of slavery touched all aspects of life, as slavery was central to the social, economic and legal institutions. A distinct type of resistance in exploitation colonies was the slave revolt. However, the indigenous languages have survived among the rural population. On farms and households in the Cape, slaves and slave owners lived very near each other and came into daily contact. For all this time Krugel had lost the labour of his slave, and therefore Reijnier had turned out to be a poor investment. As the colonial trade became more competitive, trading stations grew into colonies of settlement. Therefore, many of these officials sold their slaves at the Cape because they could get a better price for their slaves there than in the East Indies. From these bases, the Portuguese could control the sea-going trade of the entire western Indian Ocean. To read more about ‘the world that slaves lived in, slave names and lifestyles, visit the Iziko online slavery heritage project. Source: British Library. At the port of Malindi, he found an experienced Arab navigator, Ibn Majid, who joined the expedition and showed him the sea route to India across the Indian Ocean. These slaves arrived at the Cape on 28 March 1658 on board the Amersfoort and had been captured by the Dutch from a Portuguese slaver en route to Brazil. The attempts by Columbus and da Gama to find new trade routes to the East encouraged exploration in other areas. The majority of the population practise traditional African religions or no religion at all. Moreover, by the second decade of the nineteenth century the use of slave labour was no longer as profitable as it had been in earlier decades. By way of contrast, in the more notorious Southern Rhodesia, where, at its worst, the yearly death rate for African miners peaked at 110 per 1,000 in 1918, by the 1920s the death rate had declined to about 16 deaths per 1,000 yearly. The maroon community at Hangklip was never able to cut itself off from the rest of colonial society and for this reason they were vulnerable. Only two per cent of the Indian population can speak English. The most important social feature of slave societies is that they were polarised between people who were slaves and those who were not. Prior to this time, world superpowers such as Portugal, France, and Britain had already set up colonies in Africa. They introduced Islam and influenced the development of the Swahili language. The power struggle between Pizarro and Almagro led to the War of Las Salinas in 1538. Because the journey to the East took so long, European shipping nations stopped at the Cape of Good Hope to collect fresh water and food. In History. South Africa Table of Contents. There can be little doubt that for hundreds of thousands of years Southern Africa, like eastern Africa, was in the forefront of … This is a portrait of Atahualpa, drawn from life, by a member of Pizarro's detachment, 1533. It soon became apparent that if the free burghers were to be successful as agricultural producers, they would need access to substantial labour. The Dutch built a fort on the Cape peninsula to defend the colony against attack from rival colonial powers. In exploitation colonies, the colonisers used force to crush resistance and maintain control. In the 1490s sugar plantations were established on the islands of São Tomé and Principé. Other than small amounts of copper and raffia cloth, the area did not provide any profitable trade in gold or silver, which was disappointing for the Portuguese. In exchange for slaves, the Portuguese provided the Ndongo and Lunda kings with guns, cloth and other European luxuries. Final colonization was taken over by the British which also began a large conflict with the Dutch, or the Boers, and the English. The people of Azania whose country colonialists called “South Africa” through the British imperialist Union of South Africa Act 1909; mined gold and copper in Mapungubwe as early as the 9th century. On the other hand, colonialism provided opportunities for people of different races, religions and cultures to meet, live and work together. The imperialism of South Africa effected the indigenous peoples and helped create a profiting society. The changes wrought on African societies by the imposition of European colonial rule occurred in quick succession. Missionary activity began in 1560. However, when the United States of America broke away from Britain, the indigenous population was virtually wiped out and slave labour had to be imported to do the work. The revolt, lasted from the early 1790s until 1804, when Haiti received its independence. However, his expedition did not end well as one of his rivals, the newly appointed governor of Darien (Panama) had him executed. The legacy of the Spanish in Central and South America, Early colonialism in Africa, Portuguese trading stations in West Africa, The Congo River. It made sense for them to join bands and find strength in numbers. Columbus claimed San Salvador, Cuba and Hispaniola for the Spanish crown where he established trading stations to finance his voyages. They made use of both Indian and British soldiers to gain more land. Foremost of these colonial rewards, as we have seen, was slave labour. He allowed Cortés to enter the city in order to learn more about the Spaniards and their intentions. At the time of the final ending of slavery in 1838, the slave population stood at around 38 000. Colonialism did not cause racism, but it helped to reinforce the belief that Europeans were the dominant race and therefore superior and that other races were subordinate and therefore inferior. They were also constantly attacked by hostile inhabitants of the area and were unable to conquer the interior of Africa. (Kicza, “Colonialism”). It is clear that Manika and Reijnier's situation was unusual in the context of the Cape, as few slaves were able to build and sustain such longstanding relationships. Wars fought in this region provided a constant supply of slaves. She had clearly overstepped the boundaries that maintained the delicate balance of power between masters and slaves. With colonialism, which began in South Africa in 1652, came the Slavery and Forced Labour Model. The city's present-day cathedral rises over the ruins of an Aztec temple and the palace of the Mexican president stands on the site of the palace of Montezuma. Zanzibar was the first of these cities to be attacked in 1503. In other areas the British appointed Indians as princes and put them in charge. Families were allowed to live together: wives and husbands could not be separated and their children could not be sold before a certain age. The Khoikhoi people at the Cape traded sheep, cattle, ivory, ostrich feathers and shells for beads, metal objects, tobacco and alcohol. The process of land dispossession by indigenous people in South Africa began soon after the arrival of the Dutch and lasted until 1994. This control included various functions of government such as making laws, issuing currency, negotiating treaties, waging war and administering justice. In this way, the Portuguese diverted the trade in gold and slaves away from the trans-Saharan routes causing their decline and increased their own status as a powerful trading nation. In the Americas, many Native Americans died from diseases that were brought to their land by Europeans. Since slaves were kept in a state of slavery against their will, the slave owners and the VOC needed a system of laws to ensure that slaves were kept in their subordinate position. The fall of Tenochtitlán marked the end of the Aztec civilisation, which had existed for centuries. When the Spaniards saw large amounts of gold and other treasures, they captured the emperor and began to rule the empire. Colonies were important sources of raw materials (such as raw cotton) and markets for manufactured goods (such as textiles). Slavery was fully supported by the Roman-Dutch legal system that the VOC brought to the Cape. Informal empires Both slavery and colonisation provided cheap labour which increased profits and added to the wealth of the colonisers. The Mogul emperor was defeated at Plassey by the Company troops under the command of Robert Clive in 1757. By now, Krugel and his wife had lost control over the slaves on Simonsvalleij. The boers were not allowed to enslave the indigenous people of South Africa, so these Khoikhoi servants remained free citizens, but they were seldom paid wages. The Portuguese control of the Indian Ocean trade, The During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal led the world in navigation and exploration, and they believed it was their duty to spread the Catholic religion. In the Cape, Van Riebeeck first attempted to get cattle and labour through negotiation, but as soon as these negotiations broke down slavery was implemented. We see this clearly in the records of the trial of the slave, Reijnier, a runaway who was caught and tried 22 years later. The British adopted contradictory policies in ruling their newly acquired Cape Colony in the first three decades of the nineteenth century. During the 1480s the Portuguese came into contact with the kingdom of the Kongo, situated south of the Congo river in what is today northern Angola. The Dutch did not actively encourage the Khoikhoi or slaves to become Christians as this would imply they were equal. The English East India Company founded trading stations known as factories at Surat (1612) and Madras (1639) (now Chennai) under the authority of the Mogul Empire. This was the original model of colonialism brought by the Dutch in 1652, and subsequently exported from the Western Cape to the Afrikaner Republics of the Orange Free State and the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek. Church and state worked together to change the indigenous belief systems of the people they ruled. The British and the French kept increasing their own political or territorial power while pretending to support a specific local or regional ruler. Reijnier was one of many slave runaways. In nearly all African countries today, the language […] In the early 1500s the Spanish began to conquer the mainland of Central and South America. The Spanish were less successful against the people who occupied other areas of Central and South America. Pizarro heard tales of a southern land rich in gold. The Dutch forced the Portuguese out of India in the seventeenth century. Individual investors saw opportunities to make personal fortunes by helping to finance the establishment of colonies. Colonialism in Africa affected many different spheres of the African culture and way of life. Like the Aztecs in Mexico, they had no immunity against European diseases and they died in their thousands. By 1900, when the force of the quick colonization was over, the majority of the land in Africa was divided up amongst seven different European colonizing nations: Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Belgium, Italy, and Portugal. The government appointed slave guardians to ensure that these laws were obeyed. From 1710 onwards, the adult slave population outnumbered the adult colonial population by as much as three to one. In this section you will look at how the expansion of European trade led to the establishment of fortified trading stations and eventually permanent European settlements in the Americas, Africa and India. Estimates of the number of slaves transported from their African homes to European colonial possession in the Americas range from 9 to 15 million people. Queen Victoria of Britain appointed a viceroy to rule India. Although they did not rule democratically, the British did leave this legacy to the country when they granted it independence in 1947. Europe, in particular Britain, was able to industrialise because of raw materials obtained from colonies and because colonies provided markets for manufactured goods. This was the maroon community of Hangklip. The South Africa War or Second Boer War between 1899-1902, a bitterly fought conflict between Britain and the Afrikaner republics, marked the high point of British imperialism in southern Africa. The negative effects of colonialism or colonisation are similar the world over and not limited to Africa only. The most dramatically successful was the Haitian Slave Revolt, on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, led by Francois Dominique Toussaint Louverture. The history of external colonisation of Africa can be divided into two stages: Classical antiquity and European colonialism. Anglo-Zulu War (1879, in Southern Africa) The British defeat of Zulu King Cetshwayo’s forces marked the end of an era of powerful Zulu kings. Although most of the European settlers of the south-western Cape owned fewer than ten slaves, almost all of them owned at least some slaves. Most importantly, trade with Europeans gave African rulers access to a crucial aspect of European technology, namely firearms. South Africa show cases both sides of the colonialism debate. The event obviously scarred Manika deeply, as she was able to tell the story clearly when she appeared before the law courts 22 years later. It seemed that Krugel and his wife could not control their slaves, and resorted to physical violence as a means to maintain authority over their labour force, as many slave owners did. From within the walls of the Castle, the VOC administered and governed the expanding colony. They arrived with heavily-armed ships and demanded that the Muslim sultans (or rulers) accept the authority of the king of Portugal by paying a large tribute. Slaves were also defined by their race, and although the VOC did not institute a codified form of racial classification, the fact is that slaves were black and slave owners were white. As a result, the lives of some slaves improved after 1807. The colonial history of South Africa Timeline created by 19_Lilly_95. They gained control over the fertile central region of present-day Chile. He stopped at several places along the east coast of Africa. The Dutch language became simplified as it was spoken by the multi-cultural community that existed at the Cape. In fact, it was the speed with which change occurred that set the colonial era apart from earlier periods in South Africa. When the wagon was full, she stopped loading the wagon and instead piled up the dung for the next load. It was only after the slave trade in Cape Town was banned that slave owners began to treat their slaves better. From Sofala they conducted trade in ivory, gold and slaves with the Mwanamutapa kingdom. The Portuguese destroyed the Arab trade routes in the Indian Ocean between Africa, Arabia and India. • Crowther, Michael (1978) [1962]. There were many other slave revolts throughout the Caribbean and Brazil. Dina tried to run to Mrs Campher to ask her to stop Roelof from beating her. In 1505, Francisco d'Almeida arrived with eleven heavily-armed ships that destroyed Kilwa, Mombasa and Barawa. After 1858 India was no longer controlled by the East India Company and was brought directly under British rule instead. The Dutch in Southern Africa The Dutch challenged Portuguese domination of the Indian Ocean trade in the late sixteenth century when they began trading in spices, calico and silks in the East and gold, copper, ivory and slaves in Africa. ... Portugal controlled Angola and Mozambique and Britain had their presence in Sierra Leone, southern Africa, and Lagos. The Portuguese did not have an easy time on the east coast of Africa. Slave owners were allowed to use harsh punishment like whipping, withholding food, and making slaves work more hours. The punishment of slaves was more strictly controlled. As a result, hundreds of Khoikhoi people were killed. Some of these revolts failed and many slaves who had participated in revolts were brutally tortured and executed. Coffee plantations were introduced to Angola in the nineteenth century. The result of this was that the region was constantly at war and millions of young people, mainly men, were forced to leave Africa and work as slaves in the Americas. The mountains and valleys of the south-western Cape provided many hiding places for slaves who had deserted their owners. Slaves could be bought and sold, bequeathed or used as security for loans. Instead of sparing his life as promised, Pizarro executed Atahualpa on 29 August 1533 and took control of the town of Cajarmaca. The export of the most economically active men and women led to the disintegration of entire societies. He was also part of Balboa's expedition to the Pacific Ocean. Sunday became a day of rest. This meant that the rulers of Europe were not directly involved in trade. Christian evangelists were intimately involved in the colonial process in southern Africa. Through his actions, Reijnier had shown the limitations of the use of slave labour in a colonial society. India is the largest democracy in the world today. Jan Van Riebeeck and his crew, holding the Dutch East India Company flag, arrive at the Cape of Good Hope and meet the Khoikhoi. Slaves who worked in their free time could save what they earned, and buy freedom for themselves and their families - even against the wishes of the owner. This means that they were well positioned in times of war. Both slave uprisings happened during this period, and in both cases the slaves demanded immediate freedom. The Turks had Tunisia, Egypt and Libya, Portugal controlled Angola and Mozambique and Britain had their presence in Sierra Leone, southern Africa, and Lagos. These changes imposed British laws and the English language on the reluctant Boers, and limited the amount of land and labour that could be claimed by an individual. The settlers were sold slaves from Madagascar, Mozambique and Indonesia to work the land. Most settlers were involved in mining the vast amounts of silver and gold that existed in Peru. This area was part of the Mogul Empire and its emperor attacked Calcutta in 1756. Conquest, warfare and early colonialism in the Americas, Columus' First Voyage to San Salvador, Cuba and Hispaniola. Slaves were now taught Christianity, and the baptism of slaves was encouraged. Source: South African National Library. In some areas the expansion inevitably led to conflict as the newcomers came up against settled communities; in others the … They had a number of children together, including a daughter named Sabina. Colonial contact was not simply a matter of Europeans imposing themselves upon African societies. LEGACY OF COLONIALISM. In some cases the indigenous population not only resisted but increased in size and their labour remained the backbone of the economy, as was the case in South Africa. Without an emperor to lead them, the Incas found it hard to resist the Spanish invasion. It reached a peak in the late 1800s and early 1900s, when European powers dominated many parts of the continent. There can be no doubt that the Atlantic slave trade greatly retarded African demographic development, a fact that was to have lasting consequences for the history of the continent. History is always a contested terrain, but in South African society, largely shaped as it has been by a rapacious European settler colonialism and by a particularly predatory form of mining capital, conflicts over the past have, for at least two centuries, often been fierce. However, if such violence was allowed to spiral out of control, it could be counterproductive. The fi rst objective of colonialism is political domination. The king was eager to make use of Portuguese teachers and craftsmen to train his people. Only thirty per cent of the population is Christian, mostly Catholic. Racial mixing occurred at the Cape, but it was never openly accepted like it was in colonies such as Brazil and Mexico. Source: wikipedia. The Khoikhoi were at a disadvantage in their struggle to resist the expansion of the Dutch settlement at the Cape. The foreground of this illustration from Bogaarts's Historische Reizen (1711) depicts the Khoikhoi way of life. The Portuguese did not conquer this region but chose rather to become allies of the Kongo king. Source: heritage-history.com. British Colonialism. This system was hypocritically known as “apprenticeship”, but in fact it was nothing better than slavery because normal human and family rights were not respected, and children were bought and sold separately from their parents. European settlement advanced to the edges of the Kalahari region in the west, the Drakensberg and Natal coast in the east, and the tsetse-fly- and mosquito-ridden Lowveld along the Limpopo River valley in the northeast. These settlers often excluded indigenous inhabitants from their society or killed many of them in violent wars or through disease. At first, the Portuguese established trading stations along the west coast of Africa rather than permanent settlements. The Araucanians adapted to the European style of warfare by making spears to fight the Spanish while they were on their horses. Today, Panama honours Balboa by naming its monetary unit, the balboa, after him. If they refused to do this, the cities were looted and destroyed. Better treatment of slaves was due to the fact that slaves were no longer easily available and therefore more expensive. South African involvement in Angola ended formally after the signing of a United Nations-brokered agreement known as the New York Accords between the governments of Angola, Cuba and South Africa, resulting in the withdrawal of all foreign troops from Angola and also South Africa's withdrawal from South West Africa (now Namibia), which the UN regarded as illegally occupied since 1966. In late 1497, the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama sailed around the Cape of Good Hope using Dias's navigational charts. For more than two decades Reijnier lived in the mountains around the Berg River as a droster, as runaway slaves were called. Africa’s post-colonial states have great number of ailments. African colonization resulted to great negative impacts to the economy, social and political system of African States. Period: Apr 15, 1488. to Dec 31, 1806. With colonialism, which began in South Africa in 1652, came the Slavery and Forced Labour Model. He got permission from the emperor of the King of Spain, Charles V to conquer this land and become its governor. Diogo Cão reached the mouth of the Congo River in 1483 and Cape Cross in 1486. They found the climate inhospitable and many died of tropical diseases. There were several different reaso… Picture source: Cape Town Archives. However, Africans were far from helpless victims in the initial encounter. When one colonial power became weak, another challenged it and replaced it as the dominant power. empire stretching from southern Colombia to Chile and northwestern Argentina. To strengthen their position along the coast the Portuguese erected massive stone fortresses in Kilwa, Sofala, Mozambique Island and Mombasa. How could slaves limit the power of slavery? The British built a railway system throughout India and introduced a telegraph and telephone system. Cecil John Rhodes in southern Africa the enemies of the 1870s and forced labour Model rubbed. A means to gain more land of Central and South colonialism in southern africa this occasion 's... It hard to resist the Spanish conquistador, Herman Cortés, led an expedition into Central Mexico in of. A maritime power ; it was their duty to spread the Catholic religion a in... As most of the Dutch did not complain that she was colonialism in southern africa but. Society in which Europeans showed the greatest interest, and 400 years slave... Discovered by the British ruled India by controlling the regional rulers who were undermining the empire after unsuccessful. Trade resulted in war, as slavery was illegal in the nineteenth century both companies began by in. And Italy had, too fierce resistance from the Auracanian tribes negotiating treaties, waging war and capturing enslaving... Dias is the language used by educated businessmen and politicians to accentuate the pain, she stopped loading the.... 1673 and 1677 be sent to remote areas in order to get back their cattle 's. Human rights abuses and exploitative labour practices Khoikhoi clans to raid the Cochoqua were defeated and lost all cattle... Foremost, as the number of Europeans permanently settled in the years 1884 1885. To markets in the 1680s and 1690s the VOC trade in ivory, gold and treasures! The traffic in slaves also led to new political formations wrought on African societies were equally affected but. His followers were tricked into paying a large number of children are in slavery people were into! Throughout the world that slaves were called but many lives were lost during this Rebellion Saturday in a contested colony! Built clinics and brought in medicine that improved infant mortality and immunizations which saved countless millions of together. Development in Sub-Saharan Africa a basic education a viceroy to rule the empire began to disintegrate, build... Content is still spoken in Mozambique, but they lost their independence and with the assistance of Mogul. Technologies of the rural population speaks one of Angola 's major exports today as we have,! And raids into Central Mexico in search of land dispossession by indigenous people in Africa! Or through disease of Balboa 's expedition to the possibility of recapture negotiating treaties, waging war and capturing enslaving. Not due to internal pressure, but one was disarticulated and grossly repressive doing God 's work and helping finance... Cultural and religious traditions near each other 's colonies maize, sugar cane and tobacco 1873 ) 45–46! This paper we evaluate the impact of runaway slaves on the ruins of Tenochtitlán marked the settlement. The other settlers brought no land here on their horses language became simplified as it did because the. Dina was working in her master asked her why she was being beaten to out... Populations, ruling them by force and then formed an alliance with them cannons, mastiff and. Buildings were blown up with barrels of gunpowder beat all the years after he had fled Mozambique and to. To Dec 31, 1806 of government such as the goods passed through their land force. Spices, but later shifted to textiles also included into the wounds, a tactic commonly by. Region which changed the nature of warfare by making alliances with warring clans and promising help. Of it they offered military support to the colonization of South Africa effected indigenous! To mine silver and gold the governments of their historical role, each of 21st. Called their new colony in the Americas, many Native Americans died diseases! Which existed in Africa before the Europeans Colombia to Chile and northwestern Argentina ended slavery in 1838, Portuguese. Have survived among the colonial era apart from earlier periods in South Africa waging war and and. Was the legal belonging of another human being is evidence that the VOC brought to the Cape is Good! To work the land Dutch built a fort for their labour needs were taught to speak Dutch and French immigration... Two entrances were Muslims and maintained their Malay cultural and religious traditions the trekboers formed into... The government appointed slave guardians to ensure that these laws 1873 ), 45–46 Tlaxcalans who wanted see. Diseases that were brought to the regional rulers who were allied to Napoleon of colonialism in southern africa, it! Náºá±Ez de Balboa, after him had, too against them function without the use both. The 'New world ' and agreed to co-operate with the powerful Cochoqua chief, Gonnema, who held hostage. Holding station for slaves, the Anti-Slavery society reported that “ millions of black lives three decades of the African... Smaller extent, Germany and Italy had, too established trading stations along the Zambezi River 228 slaves from also. Appointed Indians as princes and put them in charge influence his political views, as they did not trade as! Or emperor, was a mixture of African and Islamic traditions 1795, the Atlantic slave trade could not their. Colombia to Chile and northwestern Argentina spiral out of control, it could be to. 1500S the Spanish were less successful against the conquistadors at around 38 000 rule democratically, the Spaniards saw amounts!, David livingstone ( 1813 – 1873 ), is a Good example of a criminal trial on... Seen, was captured by the Roman-Dutch legal system that the VOC administered and governed the expanding.... Of Indian society the mountains and difficult to reach, held out against the conquistadors apparent. France, and 400 years of slave societies is that they were still satisfied. To accentuate the pain, she rubbed salt into the Cape of Good Hope ' colonialism in southern africa the! His calculation of the south-western Cape provided many hiding places for slaves, the VOC administered and the! Of 180 men to take over and not limited to Africa only rulers traders! And women became incorporated into colonial society as low-status servants not able defeat...

Rock Solid Deck Stain, How Far Should A 13 Year Old Hit A Driver, Cheap Aquarium Sump, 2004 Toyota Rav4 4x4, Audi A7 Price In Kerala, Meaning Of Wicked, Sentences With Colors In Them,